​What is Pathology - Acute Angle-Closure
Glaucoma
Pathophysiology
Asian or Inuit women over 45 or people who are nearsighted constitute the highest risk category. The anterior chamber has issues with fluid and pressure discharge when glaucoma is present.
• Causes the outflow region of the iris/corneal angle to narrow due to bunching of the iris as the pupil dilates because the eye is an enclosed fibrous capsule, making it impossible for the eye to swell without putting pressure on crucial structures like the choroid retina and optic nerve. A moderate or urgent episode may be brought on by persistent pupil dilation. Sleep and relaxation can help with a mild attack. The same kinds of signs that cause a medical and surgical emergency can also result from trauma to the eye.

Findings from the Evaluation and Diagnosis

• Tonometry used to calculate IOP. During an eye test, a gonioscopy is used to see and measure the angle of the anterior chamber.
Complications
Blindness, either complete or partial.
• The overall impact of ocular drops.
• Infection after surgery.

Treatment through surgery and medicine

• Prophylactic laser surgery can be performed on the eye that is not affected to make an opening between the anterior and posterior chambers.
• Beta-adrenergic blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, adrenergic agonists, or miotic drugs.
• Corticosteroids to decrease inflammation, osmotic diuretics, analgesics, antiemetics, and bed rest are used in acute episodes.
• Steer clear of prolonged times of darkness, stress, and any medications that could cause mydriasis.
Assess for eye redness, vertigo, vomiting, and the presence of rainbows around objects; this is a medical and surgical emergency. Time is the goal.

​What is Pathology – Cataracts
Pathophysiology

• Lens opacity can develop at any age, including congenitally. The majority of cataract formation, however, happens after age 40 and most frequently in the aged. Subcapsular, nuclear, and cerebral types are some examples.
• In nuclear (age-related) cataract formation, the lens's centre and periphery begin to generate more protein strands, which then start to collect and form strata by folding in the lens's centre. The centre of the lens becomes opaque and turns yellow as strata develop because of the protein fibres that gather there.
Women who use HRT are more at risk, and those who use HRT along with sizable alcohol intake are even more at risk. UV radiation exposure is yet another danger.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results
Exams with an ophthalmoscope and a slit lamp microscopy show that the lens is opaque.
• Subjective reports include issues with reading small print, seeing in bright light, detecting haloes around objects, and having glare problems while travelling at night.
Complications
• Intraoperative floppy iris syndrome, which can result in the iris abruptly contracting during surgery (-blocker therapy).
• IOL implant displacement; macular edoema; retinal detachment; and IOP and haemorrhage.


medical attention and surgical procedure

• Inserting an IOL after phacoemulsifying the previous lens.
• Talk to the surgeon about all daily medications, particularly -adrenergic blockers.
• There is a rapid rate of recovery.
• Pre- and postoperatively, keep an eye on your vital indicators and your vision.

​What is Pathology - Tuberculosis (TB)
Pathophysiology
• The tubercle bacilli are transmitted through aerial routes. The droplet nuclei that hold mycobacteria move around in the atmosphere. The illness is rendered inactive by a T-cell-mediated response that walls off the lesion (Ghon tubercle).
• The hilar area is first affected by the Ghon tubercle. The Ghon necrose cavitates then may discharge the organism into the lung if the patient develops immunosuppression.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

• History; chest x-ray (upper lobe lesions are more common); Mantoux test showing TB or induration of greater than 15 millimetres in patients with healthy immune systems; sputum smears and AFB culture.
• NAA; QFT-G test performed on blood sample; 24-hour turnaround time for findings. The results of the QFT-G test are unchanged by receiving the BCG vaccine.
• Adventitious breath sounds can be heard when the thorax is auscultated.
Complications
• Respiratory failure, demise, and obstructive respiratory illness.

medical attention and surgical procedure

• A four-antibiotic combination. Depending on immunity, antibiotic treatment may be required for 6–9 months or longer. AFB sputum samples every month up until two consecutively negative tests.
• Proper diet, weightlifting once per week, bronchodilators, and chest percussion.
• Airborne seclusion in a space with low air pressure.
• The Mantoux test will always be positive following BCG exposure or immunization, necessitating the need for CXR.
• Be prepared for healthcare professionals to enter the area wearing special masks.
• Maintaining a medical routine is crucial for both individual and societal health. Inform students of the consequences.
• Keep an eye out for SOB, low pulse oximetry, lymphadenopathy, vital signs, and night sweats, and don a HEPA mask that has been fit-tested.

​What is Pathology – Mesothelioma
Mesothelia, a singular layer of flat cells that lines the pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities, is a component of pathophysiology.
Short asbestos fibres enter these cells when someone is exposed to it through their lungs. Coughing up and ingesting asbestos fibres is believed to cause peritoneal infiltration. Cells mutate, changing DNA and activating oncogenes.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results
• A thorough medical background aids in diagnosis.
• Thoracoscopy with biopsy, bronchoscopy, CXR, MRI, or CT imaging.
• Chromosome 22 is abnormal in some genotypes, and chromosomes 1, 3, and 6 and 9's limbs are rearranged.

Complications

• Pleural effusion, dysphagia, superior vena cava syndrome; spread to the peritoneal cavity, thoracic wall, and lymph nodes.

medical attention and surgical procedure

• Chemotherapy and radiation (implanted and exterior beam).
• Pneumonectomy and lobectomy.
• Pleurodesis in the case of ongoing pleural fluid.
• Comply with OSHA regulations when handling asbestos-containing materials.
• People who have a past of asbestos exposure should undergo routine health checks.
• Keep an eye out for pleural effusions, SOB, vital signs, pulse oximetry, electrolytes, and CBC.
Every 4 hours, listen for breath noises.
• When a pneumonectomy has been performed, there is no chest tube present, and the afflicted lung is positioned in the down or semi- to high-Fowler's position.
A chest tube is in position in lobectomy cases. The patient is positioned in a semi-to-high Fowler's position. Radiation may result in swallowing and esophageal candidiasis.

​What is Pathology – Sarcoidosis
Pathophysiology A genetic link is believed to exist between granulomatous disorders, which mainly affect the lungs, skin, eyes, and lymphatics. The heart, bones, joints, liver, and kidneys are additional impacted organs.
The majority of the people in genetic clusters are Scandinavians and African Americans. Genetic factors are thought to be influenced by the environment. affects people who are 40 years old and younger.
• Lymphocytic alveolitis develops after hilar lymphadenopathy. There may also be skin abnormalities, peripheral lymphadenopathy, iritis, interstitial nephritis, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly.
• Malabsorption causes symptoms and problems.
• May result in right-sided cardiac failure or pulmonary fibrosis. (cor pulmonale).


Evaluation and Diagnostic Results
• Inflammation-related symptoms, such as fever and other flu-like symptoms.
• Previously having nocturnal sweats.
• T-cell lymphocytopenia, an elevated monocyte count, and testing for prevalent allergens on an allergy panel.
• Chest X-ray abnormalities, abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG), abnormal histology; rule out TB and histoplasmosis (TB).

Complications
• Cor pulmonale and pulmonary fibrosis that progresses to mortality.
Damage to the eyes, liver, and kidneys.

Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure
• Corticosteroids and additional immunosuppressive medications.
• Report nocturnal sweats, a persistent dry cough, and shortness of breath. (SOB).
• Inform the patient about the illness's characteristics, its low fatality rate, and how corticosteroids are used.
• Keep an eye on your breathing ease, chest x-rays, pulse oximetry measurement, and any indications of right-sided heart failure.
• Check for signs related to corticosteroid therapy and take action if necessary.

​What is Pathology – Histoplasmosis
Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus that causes systemic fungal illness.
• In soil enriched by bird droppings, an organism flourishes.
After forming, fungus spores are ingested.
• In the lungs, fungal spores transform into yeast once they reach body temperature. The local lymphatic system then absorbs the yeast, allowing it to enter the circulation. 2-3 weeks after infection, cellular protection sets in.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

Fever, cough, anemia, liver and spleen enlargement, leukopenia, pneumonia, adrenal necrosis, and gastrointestinal system ulcers are all symptoms of a widespread illness.
• A positive histoplasmin skin test or urine antigen test as well as increasing complement fixation and agglutination titers are signs of chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis, which causes lung cavitations resembling those seen in TB. confirmed through stained tissue dissection or H. capsulatum culture from bone marrow, blood, lymph nodes, or sputum.


Pleural effusion and heart tamponade are complications.
• A decline in mental condition.


medical attention and surgical procedure
• Itraconazole, ketoconazole, and intravenous amphotericin B.
Fluconazole will be prescribed to immunocompromised patients for life.
• Immunosuppressed patients who are HIV-positive, receiving chemotherapy, or receiving radiation treatment should avoid coming into contact with any dirt that may have been contaminated by bird droppings.
• Encourage the client to promptly disclose any cough or fever.
• Track vital signs, liver function tests (LFTs), vital breath sounds, and gastrointestinal discomfort suggestive of ulceration every 4 hours.
Monitor the complete blood count (CBC) for anemia, the blood chemistry for catecholamines, and the chest x-ray for cavitations similar to those seen in TB.

​What is Pathology - Lung Cancer
Pathophysiology

• Long-term irritation or cancer exposure alters cells, activating oncogenes and causing the loss of chromosome 3's genetic material.
• Mutating cells with less maturity are more invasive than those with early differentiation.
The TNM technique is employed in the evaluation of cancers.
• Compared to healthy body cells, cancer cells proliferate more quickly and have higher metabolic rates. Hypersecretion from cancers that are secreting causes harm to the body. Lung cancer may be the main site or a secondary metastatic site from another part of the body.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

• Chronic cough, wheezing, breathlessness, fever, anorexia, weight loss, and pleural friction rub.
• CT scan, PET scan, MRI, bronchoscopy with biopsy, phlegm for cytology, and US.
Complications
Syndrome of the superior vena cava.
• Effusions in the pleura.
• Tamponade cardiac.
• Hyperuricemia as a result of the cancer therapy and the destruction of cancer cells.

Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure

• TomoTherapy, immunotherapy, cortisone, chemotherapy, and radiation.
• A pneumonectomy or lobectomy.
• repeated CXRs, electrolytes, CBC, or other imaging.
• Promote quitting smoking, annual checkups, and awareness of cancer's early symptoms.
• Provide antiemetics and monitor F and E, the epidermis, and underlying structures (radiation).
(chemotherapy).
• Keep an eye on the CBC for RBC and WBC.
• Assist the client's and family's psychosocial requirements; provide pain medication as necessary

​What is Pathology - Legionnaires’ Disease
Pathophysiology
• Pneumonia-like symptoms are brought on by the inhalation of Legionella bacteria from contaminated water sources (such as air conditioner vents, spas, and respiratory apparatus). thrives in temps of 90 to 105 degrees F.
• Diarrhea, temperature, myalgia, and headache. 2–10 day incubation time.
• Causes Pontiac fever, a milder influenza-like sickness; or Legionnaire's disease.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

• People who smoke cigarettes or have persistent lung illness, as well as those whose immune systems are weakened due to diabetes, renal failure, organ transplantation, cancer, or AIDS, are at risk.
• Urine antigen testing; sputum culture; respiratory washings; blood serology for antibody titer.

Pneumonia and respiratory failure that results in mortality are complications.


medical attention and surgical procedure

• The preferred course of treatment is erythromycin, given both early in and throughout the duration of the illness.
Drug Rifampin (used only with other antibiotics).
• Fluoroquinolones and macrolides are efficient.
• Aminoglycosides, cephalosporins, and penicillin.
• Vomiting antiemetics.
• CXR; CBC; ABG.

• Continue to use virus control procedures.
• Encourage deep breathing movements and coughing; use an incentive spirometer.
• Keep track of your intake and outflow (I&O), the nature of your stools, and your emesis.
• Assess breath sounds every 4 hours; keep track of vital signs, such as comfort of breathing, pulse oximetry, ABGs, and vital signs; pound the chest; and frequently attend to oral hygiene needs.
• Check for cognitive decline.
• To humidify air, use clean water.

​What is Pathology – Influenza
Pathophysiology A viral syndrome that spreads through the air as aerosolized particles and results in myalgia, fever, respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, as well as systemic inflammatory responses.
• Because influenza strains vary, a new vaccine is created each season based on the strains that have been discovered. The comparatively recent strains of H1N1 influenza (swine flu) and H5N1 influenza (bird flu) are of concern.
• Without immunization, influenza can spread quickly and cause a pandemic.
• The group most at risk for complications-related death is the very young, the very elderly, and people with chronic illnesses.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

• Complete blood count (CBC) with differential, vital signs, culture for strain (if required), breath sounds, and visualisation of postnasal drip by oropharyngeal examination. • History of contact with an infected individual.
Complications
• A pneumonitis.

Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure
• Antiviral drugs, which are most successful when taken within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms.
• Analgesics, bronchodilators (if required), culture, antibiotics for secondary infection, electrolyte solutions for digestive complaints, and gut rest.
• The influenza vaccine is contraindicated in people who are allergic to eggs but necessary in high-risk groups.
• Keep an eye on your vital signs, breath sounds, and intake and outflow (I&O).
• Explain to patients that since vaccines contain viruses that have been destroyed or rendered ineffective, they cannot spread the flu.
• Local and systemic inflammation and antibody generation following vaccination may cause a low-grade fever or soreness at the injection site.

​What is Pathology - Pleural Effusion
The visceral and parietal lining of the outer lungs makes up the pleural area in terms of pathophysiology. In this area, there is a vacuum or negative atmosphere. The space loses its negative pressure and expands into a space that presses on the lung in that cavity if the lining develops damage or disease, or experiences oncotic pressure changes (lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis [TB], lung abscess, congestive heart failure, ascites, chronic renal disease, chest trauma).

Evaluation and Diagnostic Results

• Cough, dyspnea, reduced breath sounds over the affected region, asymmetric chest expansion, and the presence of pleural friction rub on inspiration.
• A thoracentesis and cytology to determine the cause of the effusion; a chest x-ray; a complete blood count (CBC) with differential indicating an increase in white blood count (WBC) (infection); and a client history.

Complications
• Respiratory distress; • Mediastinal shift with strain on unaffected lung.

medical attention and surgical procedure

• Chest tube insertion or thoracentesis.
• Steroids, painkillers, and antibiotics.
• The oncologist evaluates cancer-causing pleural effusions to decide the best course of action.
• Pleurodesis, in which talc is used to create a scar in the pleural cavity to stop further effusion.
• Shortness of breath (SOB) should be reported right away, particularly if a chronic lung condition has been identified.
• For clients who are at elevated risk, influenza and pneumonia vaccinations are advised.
• Splinting the chest for effective coughing and infection control are essential.
After thoracentesis, carefully check your blood pressure (BP) because the removal of fluid reduces your overall blood volume.
• Put the client in the high-Fowler posture, give medication before removing the chest tube, and restrict activities.
• Keep an eye out for SOB and low oximetry.