What is Pathology - Gouty Arthritis
Pathophysiology Uric acid crystals are formed in the joints and other connective tissues in gouty arthritis. Because of the crystals' greater concentration in synovial fluid compared to plasma, the joint is overly inflamed. Because uric acid crystals are affected by gravity, the joints that are impacted are typically those at the distal part of the body. It is known as "the rich man's disease" because many foods that contain purines are thought to be eaten by the affluent. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Hyperuricemia, a diet rich in purines, aching joints, and potential gouty lesions close to joints. • Gout attacks brought on by drinking too much alcohol, becoming sick or under stress, and taking drugs like aspirin, cyclosporine, levodopa, aminophylline, niacin, or antibiotics for tuberculosis. • Arthroscopy with joint fluid extraction to check for white blood cells and uric acid crystals. Complications • Acute episodes that cause pain and immobility. • The limbs near joints can develop soft, non-tender tophi. If the skin is not correctly cared for, these could develop into open sores (ulcers). • Potential kidney stone development due to uric acid. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Probenecid, uricosurics, and anti-inflammatory drugs; upping daily fluid consumption to 2,000–3,000 mL. • Steer clear of aspirin, diuretics, and foods rich in purines. • If you drink booze at all, do so in moderation. • Look for stress-relieving activities. Painful gouty arthritis is prevalent. Give inflammation pain relievers like colchicine. • Make the customer drink more fluids and stress the value of staying hydrated. • Track uric acid levels and help the customer select low-purine foods and medications.
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What is Pathology – Osteoarthritis
Pathophysiology Chondrocytes embedded in proteoglycan molecules, which are big and osmotic and draw fresh synovial fluid into the joint, make up the matrix of cartilage. With excessive wear and tear, the chondrocytes become inflamed and release inflammatory mediators (cytokines), which sets off a chain of events that includes the formation of protease, which breaks down the proteoglycan molecules. The cartilage eventually ages and deteriorates. Cracks develop from fractures and streaks in the cartilage. Cysts are brought on by synovial fluid leakage into the surrounding bone. The cartilage's underlying layer can no longer function as a reliable impact absorber. Bone nodules develop. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Pain during or after exercise that goes away with relaxation. after the age of 40, more prone to happen. MRI or CT scans are diagnostic. • Articular and bony abnormalities can be diagnosed and treated with arthroscopy. Complications • Joint ankylosis, which causes immobility and ongoing discomfort.• The painful nodes in the digits known as Heberden's and Bouchard's nodes. • Vertebral osteoarthritis may cause nerve pressure and muscular spasms. Medical Attention and Surgery Procedure • Immunosuppressants and anti-inflammatory drugs like DMARDs and TNF-I. • Drugs that relax muscles, as well as the use of cold and heat treatment. • Any required joint replacement surgery. • Low-impact exercises like swimming and walking can be substituted. If obese, weight reduction is required. • Take anti-inflammatory medications with meals, and report any infection-related symptoms right away. • Never should inactivity be encouraged. Customers need to understand that you loose it if you don't use it. What is Pathology - Kaposi’s Sarcoma
Pathophysiology • A uncommon type of lymphatic cancer that affects endothelial tissue rather than connective tissue and is characterised by reddish-purple papules, lumps, or macules. • Although internal systems may be affected, lesions typically first appear on the skin or mucous membranes. • A rare cancer that is frequently linked to AIDS. • In AIDS patients, KS is thought to be obtained through sexual contact with the human herpesvirus 8. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • The lower extremities and dorsal region of the feet display classic shape. On the mucous membranes and upper limbs, the AIDS-related variety is present. • The only reliable diagnostic is provided by a biopsy. Complications • Overgrowth and obstruction of lymph, blood arteries, gastrointestinal and accessory tracts, and organ exocrine function. • Metastasis-induced harm to organ systems. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Cryotherapy, hormone therapy, biotherapy (interferon alfa-2b), and radiotherapy and chemotherapy. • HAART therapy (treatment). Remember: Avoid unprotected sex as there are numerous strains of the human immunodeficiency virus that can propagate and this cancer may do so as well. • Avoid smoking because cigarette paper can contain a variety of infectious pathogens. • While receiving chemotherapy, keep an eye on the total blood count and uric acid level to check for bone marrow inhibition and hyperuricemia. • During radiation treatment, evaluate the skin (portals of entry and exit). • If leukopenic, provide reverse isolation; avoid organic foods and fresh blosso What is Pathology - Acquired Immunodeficiency Disease
Pathophysiology The T-helper cells (CD4) are presented with antigenic material by macrophages after they have processed foreign antigens. The T and B lymphocytes receive this information from the CD4 cells. A retroviral particle (RNA strand) carrying the HIV virus and encased in a glycoprotein sheath (gp120 receptor) that contains the viral protein p24 invades CD4 cells. The immunological cells impacted and eliminated are the CD4 cell and macrophage. Upon reaching a CD4 cell level of less than 200 cells/mm3, AIDS is declared in the patient. The existence of an opportunistic infection is one of the additional diagnostic factors. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • CD4 and CD8 counts, abnormalities in the CD4/CD8 ratio, and viral burden. • GI wasting caused by opportunistic diarrheal infection and by virus particles altering enteral epithelial function. Complex AIDS dementia. • Opportunistic disease; Western blot analysis and ELISA are repeated after one positive finding. AIDS dementia, Kaposi's sarcoma, lymphomas, fungal meningitis, and TB are among the complications. • pneumonias caused by Mycobacterium avium complex and Pneumocystis carinii. • Toxoplasmosis, Cytomegalovirus Retinitis, Cervical Cancer, Candida Infections, GI Infections, and Wasting. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Integrase inhibitors, HAART, and fusion inhibitors (only intramuscular). Nucleoside transcriptase inhibitor monotherapy is only given to pregnant women and newborn babies. • Prophylactic treatment is added to the regular medical regimen once an opportunistic infection develops. • Steer clear of tobacco use, unprotected intercourse, organic foods, and medications. • Keep an eye on viral burden, CD4/CD8 ratios, and any signs of opportunistic infection. What is Pathology - Sjögren’s Syndrome
Pathophysiology • An autoimmune disease in which T lymphocytes and autoantibodies target the salivary and lacrimal glands. • May exist alone or in conjunction with other autoimmune illnesses. • Older women are the primary demographic affected. Non-Hodgkin cancer risk is increased by 40%–60% in individuals with Sjögren's syndrome. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Blurred vision, burning, itching, and the capacity to wet a test strip positioned beneath the eyelid in the Schirmer's test. • Dry nasal membranes, thick secretions in the bronchi and lungs, dysphagia, dry, cracked oral mucous membranes, enlarged parotid glands, lower lip salivary biopsy, decreased perception of taste, thick secretions, thick secretions in the bronchi and lungs. • Vasculitis, recurrent Candida infections and vaginal dryness. • Elevated ESR, leukopenia, and anaemia. Anorexia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, dyspareunia, palpitations, and primary biliary cirrhosis are among the complications. medical attention and surgical procedure • Artificial tears, cyclosporine eye drops, comprehensive and effective oral hygiene, sugarless gum or sweets, sips of water, cholinergic saliva-inducing medication, and artificial saliva. • Immunosuppressants and antimalarial drugs. • Report persistent dry eye, dysphagia, and xerostomia. • Check your capacity to ingest. • Prevent ocular abrasion by shielding eyes from extreme dryness. What is Pathology - Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
Pathophysiology TSH is fought by autoantibodies, which is why the illness typically affects older women with autoimmune disease histories. Instead of being destroyed, TSH attaches to its receptors in the thyroid gland, leading to hyperthyroidism symptoms. Episodic hyperthyroidism can occur, so symptoms may alternate between hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. • The thyroid gland enlarges as a result of lymphoid tissue and plasma cells infiltrating it. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Increased serum TG antibody and TPO amounts as measured by immunofluorescent assay. TSH can be either high or average. Levels of T3 and T4. • A thyroid biopsy using a needle. Visible goitre or swollen thyroid gland on ultrasound. RAIU. Chest discomfort, bradycardia, hypotension, and atherosclerosis are complications. • Mental lethargy, depression, and exhaustion. • Dry skin, face puffiness, constipation, and anorexia. medical attention and surgical procedure Evidence suggests that low-dose thyroid hormone treatment may prevent the thyroid gland from being destroyed. • When treatment first starts, mention any symptoms of chest discomfort. The medication doesn't start to lessen symptoms for a few weeks. • Report any suicidal ideas. • Keep busy and consume fewer saturated fats in your diet. An angina attack or myocardial infarction can occur when starting thyroid replacement hormones with a slow heart. ECG monitoring for the patient. • Modify your nutrition as your health changes. What is Pathology - Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Pathophysiology Antibodies in the immune system target "self." More women than men are impacted. There is an inherited propensity. Skin plaques brought on by discoid lupus typically develop on the cheeks, ears, and hair. Everywhere they show up, the region becomes inflamed and scarred. Alopecia causes regions of the hair to be affected. • Skin, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, hematologic, gastrointestinal, renal, and ophthalmologic alterations are brought on by Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), which is an immune system excess that results in inflammation. ELISA for SLE-specific antibodies, antinuclear antibody (ANA), and nonspecific inflammatory studies, such as complete blood count with differential (CBC with diff), erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and renal function tests, are used in the assessment and diagnosis of the condition. Complications • Myocardial ischemia, pericarditis, and myocarditis. • Renal problems. • Anemia and thrombocytopenia. • Peritonitis caused by intestinal and abdominal vasculature scarring and persistent inflammation. • Blindness or alterations in vision. • Significant arthritic alterations. medical attention and surgical procedure • TNF-inhibitors and anti-rheumatic medications. • Corticosteroids and additional immunosuppressive medications. • Explain heart disease symptoms, such as SOB. • Explain renal inflammation symptoms. • Maintain an active lifestyle, get enough sleep, carry a MedicAlert bracelet, and eat a healthy diet. • Keep track of clinical conditions and laboratory findings. If you experience arthritis and butterfly dermatitis, see a rheumatologist. • The use of immunosuppressive medications increases the patient's chance of infection and pseudodiabetes. What is ENT - How does the audiologist differentiate between a problem with air conduction and a problem with bone conduction?
When conducting observations of a patient's hearing threshold using air conduction, either headphones or insert earphones are used to transmit sound to the patient. In the event that a hearing deficit is identified, bone conduction hearing thresholds will subsequently be evaluated. A vibrating device, known as a bone oscillator, is placed on the mastoid, which is located behind the ear, in order to evaluate bone conduction. The bone oscillator provides stimulation to the cochlea, which allows it to function independently of the external and internal ears. Patients who have SNHL have hearing sensitivities that are the same or very close to being the same via bone conduction and air conduction. This is because the hearing loss originates from the cochlea or further. Patients who have CHL have normal cochlear function; as a result, their hearing thresholds are improved when they transmit sound through the bone as opposed to when they transmit sound through the air. The space that exists between the thresholds of air conduction and bone conduction is referred to as the air-bone gap. (ABG). What is ENT - What does it mean when an audiologist states that you need to mask your hearing in order to verify that you have a hearing loss?
It is possible for loud noises to travel through the skull via bone conduction and be heard in the ear that is not being tested when they are played in the ear that is being tested. This phenomenon, which is known as crossover, has the potential to cloud the findings of measurements performed on the test ear. Therefore, the ear that is not being tested needs to be taken out of the equation for the exam. Masking is the simultaneous transmission of sound to the non-test ear while testing the other ear with the target stimulus; this serves to prevent the non-test ear from interfering with sound perception in the test ear. This is done while testing the other ear with the target stimulus. What is ENT - What is the standard deviation of the clear tones?
A person's capacity to hear within three important speech frequencies is estimated using the PTA. The number is determined by taking the average of the hearing thresholds determined through air conduction at frequencies of 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. Fletcher's average, which is the average of the two best thresholds that are generally used to obtain the PTA, is the threshold that is most commonly used for individuals who have a hearing loss that is gradually getting worse over time. Instead of measuring a person's actual hearing capacity, the PTA is used to evaluate their reliability. |
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