What is Pathology – Pneumonia
Pathophysiology Inflammatory mediators in lung tissue cause edoema and fill alveoli with serous fluid and mucus. Acute inflammation of lung tissue caused by inhaling droplets carrying viral particles, bacteria, fungi, parasites, or irritating substances. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Auscultation reveals rhonchi, crackles, and wheezes. Auscultation is lessened over areas of consolidation, where spoken words can be distinctly heard. (not the case in air-filled areas). Elevated body temperature; productive cough with phlegm that is green, yellow, or rust coloured. • A chest x-ray or computed tomography (CT) scan for consolidation, an arterial blood gas (ABG) for a raised oxygen level, a complete blood count (CBC) for an elevated white blood count (WBC), a sputum analysis for a causative agent with a culture and sensitivity (C&S) test, and a Gram stain. Pulmonary edema, respiratory failure, and mortality are all complications. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Pulse oximetry, expectorants, bronchodilators, antibiotics, and antpyretics. • The flu and pneumonia vaccine lowers the chance of pneumonia. • Infection prevention techniques and respiratory toileting are required. • Every 4 hours, check vital signs, auscultate the lungs, monitor intake and output (I&O), adopt a semi-Fowler's to high Fowler's posture, and check the pulse oximetry reading. • Examine breathing rhythms and administer additional oxygen (humidified if necessary). • Share tips for preventing infections.
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What is Pathology - Pulmonary Embolism
Pathophysiology • The development of thrombus in the deep veins as a result of an inefficient cardiac pump; atrial fibrillation; the presence of more clotting factors; or inactivity of the musculoskeletal pump, which slows down blood flow returning to the heart. Air, fat, amniotic fluid, and bacteria can also be found in emphysema. The thrombus obstructs pulmonary circulation, impeding gas exchange. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Hemoptysis, syncope, hypotension, dyspnea, diaphoresis, fear, a sense of imminent disaster, chest pain, abnormal auscultatory findings. • ABG demonstrating reduced oxygenation, V/Q scan abnormality, peripheral Doppler studies for DVT, spiral CT scan of the lung to detect PE, D-dimer test, and pulmonary angiography. • CXR for obstruction. Complications include shock, right-sided CHF, and unexpected mortality. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Hemodynamic support, regular lung auscultation, suctioning, and additional oxygen. • Thrombolytics, inotropics, diuretics, antiarrhythmics, and intravenous morphine. Identify and reduce PE risk factors. Embolectomy. • Warfarin use in the prevention of ventricular fibrillation. • Always check the customers' extremities who are confined to beds. To spot DVT formation, look for unilateral edoema in the limbs or legs. • Check vital signs for indications of shock; comfort the distressed client; be prepared to support ventilation and hemodynamic state. What is Pathology - Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Pathophysiology • Coming into touch with or inhaling a coronavirus droplet. • After interaction with the SARS coronavirus, immune mediators induce inflammation, edema, and pneumonia by preventing gas exchange and leading to the filling of the alveoli with fluid. The SARS virus can survive for six hours on the hands. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Rhonchi, crackles, and diminished lung sounds in regions of consolidation on auscultation; fever; myalgia; and cough. Recent travel to SARS-affected countries. Liver function tests (LFTs) showing elevation. Complete blood count (CBC) for low white blood cell (WBC) and platelet counts. Chest x-ray and chest computed tomography (CT) for areas of consolidation. Electrolyte panel for low potassium and low sodium. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and antibody test for SARS. Acute respiratory failure and mortality are complications. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • Supplemental oxygen, antibiotics, hormones, and antiviral drugs. • If the client's condition improves, intubation and ventilation may be necessary. • Continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring; hemodynamic monitoring for cardiac output; daily weighing to evaluate fluid retention; use of diuretics, antibiotics, and inotropic agents. • Intravenous assistance; packed red blood cells (RBCs) transfusion for oxygen delivery. • Explain the intensive physical and psychosocial treatment that ventilator-dependent clients will receive. • Intensive care, blood transfusions, central venous tubes, serial x-rays, and arterial blood gas (ABG) are required. • Infection control must be strictly adhered to. • Keep an eye on the EKG, lung sounds, ABG, pulse oximetry, and central venous pressure. (ECG). • Strictly observe intake and outflow (I&O). • Keep an eye out for shock symptoms, evaluate serial chest x-rays, and administer aseptic ventilator treatment. What is Pathology - Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
Pathophysiology Fibrosis and edoema stimulate immune molecules, which in turn cause the destruction of capillary beds and alveolar walls. Traumatic experiences also stimulate immune mediators. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Rapid breathing and a need for oxygen. • Consolidation to full "white out" on the CXR; these are noncardiogenic right-sided CHF symptoms. • Pulse oximetry and ABG data indicating reduced oxygenation. • Rhonchi, crackles, and areas where breath sounds are missing can be heard during auscultation over areas of consolidation. • Cyanosis, peripheral swelling, and cool skin. Complications • Acute respiratory failure with a mortality risk of at least 50%. • Acidosis of the lungs. Failure of multiple internal systems; shock. Medical Attention and Surgical Procedure • PEEP breathing and intubation. • Daily weighing to determine fluid retention; use of diuretics, antibiotics, and inotropic drugs; and ECG tracking. • Intravenous assistance; PRBC infusion for oxygen delivery. • Enteral feedings; prone posture on occasion to improve oxygenation. • Explain mechanical ventilation to your customers. • Requires ongoing laboratory evaluations, central IV tubes, and x-rays. • Keep an eye on the ECG, ABG, pulse oximetry, lung noises, and central venous pressure. • Strictly observe I&O. • Keep an eye out for shock symptoms, evaluate serial CXR, and administer aseptic ventilator treatment. What is Pathology- Cystic Fibrosis
Pathophysiology Chromosome 7 is impacted by an autosomal recessive disease that prevents it from producing the protein CFTR, which regulates the movement of Na+ and Cl- ions. • perspiration glands do not reabsorb sodium, so salt depletion in perspiration can happen. • All exocrine secretions of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and reproductive tracts thicken and obstruct normal flow. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Pancreatic enzymes for infants who appear with a meconium ileus and kids with recurrent or severe pulmonary disease; CXR; sweat electrolyte testing; PFTs; fat absorption. • Genetic testing of the kid and parents. Complications • Impaired exocrine activity of the pancreas. recurring gastritis and type 1 DM. • Potentially deadly recurrent respiratory infections and atelectasis; respiratory exertion may cause the thorax to resemble a barrel. • Bowel blockage, hypovitaminosis, malnutrition, and steatorrheic stools. • Stagnation. medical attention and surgical procedure • Enzymes from the pancreas. • Chest palpation, additional oxygen, antibiotics for respiratory episodes, ABG, CXR, and CBC. ● Lung reconstruction. • Genetic guidance. • The illness is persistent, and patients typically live shorter lives (3 or 4 decades). • It is necessary to keep replacing pancreas enzymes and pounding the chest. • Flu and pneumonia vaccinations are advised for people at elevated risk. • Track PFTs and O2 levels; listen to your lungs every four hours. • Check stools for blockage in the small intestine. • Check test results for hypovitaminosis and low protein levels. • Keep in mind: Support families mentally. What is Pathology – Pneumothorax
Pathophysiology The visceral and parietal pleura may generate potential space, which lowers pressure there. Negativity is lost when a potential space is breached by trauma or a pathologic event, and the real space then fills with air (pneumothorax) or blood. (hemothorax). • Lung tissue is compressed by positive pressure in the pleural cavity, which reduces gas exchange and results in atelectasis. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Dyspnea, anxiety, and sudden-onset pleural discomfort. • Hemoptysis, uneven chest movement, lack of breath sounds in the affected lung area, and oxygen saturation. • Atelectasis on the CXR and anomalous ABG results. Complications • Mediastinal change and breathing difficulty. • Acidosis of the lungs. • Emphysema subcutaneous. medical attention and surgical procedure • If the pneumothorax is large (>30%), inserting a chest tube causes suction in the pleural cavity, which restores negative pressure. • A thoracotomy with fluid evacuation provides relief for lung collapse caused by pathology (injury to the pleura from illness). Pleurodesis may be necessary for recurrent pneumothorax. • The thoracic tube may remain in position for a number of days. • It's necessary to use bronchodilators, practise deep breathing and coughing, and have regular x-rays. • Check for subcutaneous emphysema in the chest, auscultate the lungs every 4 hours, and monitor O2 saturation. • Remind the client to request painkillers as necessary, particularly if the chest tube is being taken out. • Keep in mind: After the pleural space has been cleared of a significant quantity of fluid, carefully check for hypotension. What is Pathology - Chronic Bronchitis
Pathophysiology • Chronic inflammation of the bronchial and bronchiole mucosal membrane caused by cytokines and IL-8. Chronic congestion is brought on by the excessive mucous production and malfunctioning mucociliary pump. Chronic bronchitis causes a fibrotic, noncompliant lung and pulmonary hypertension, and is typical in smokers. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Dyspnea and cyanosis, with an expectorant cough lasting at least three months for more than two years in a row. • The clubbing of the toenails associated with cor pulmonale; the "blue bloater." • Fever, headache, exhaustion, and nausea; additionally, abnormal CXR scans, MRIs, ABGs, and PFTs; and clinical results. Complications • Declining CHF on the right edge. • Repeated respiratory attacks requiring hospitalisation. • The colonisation of bacteria immune to antibiotics. • As pulmonary function declines, the development of oxygen reliance. • Death due to cardiac failure or pneumonia. medical attention and surgical procedure • Bronchodilators, mucolytics, diuretics, oxygen therapy, nebulizer therapies, incentive spirometry, antihypertensives, ACE inhibitors, inotropic drugs, and beta-adrenergic blockers. • A programme to stop smoking. • Surgery to reduce the lung. • Explain to customers the consequences of smoking. • Explain to customers the importance of receiving an influenza and pneumonia vaccination. • Teach clients to report SOB, infection signs, or a sudden increase in weight right away. • Keep an eye out for changes in diagnostic lung x-rays, CT scans, or MRIs. • Keep track of pulse oximetry and ABGs. • While experiencing acute right-sided CHF, weigh the individual every day. • Arrange care based on your tolerance for exercise. What is Pathology – Emphysema
The pulmonary capillary bed is harmed and destroyed, air is trapped, and there is an increase in dead air space due to the pathophysiology of a chronic condition in which the alveolar structures distend, lose elasticity, rupture, or coalesce. The condition is exacerbated by cigarette smoking and an inherited lack of 1 antitrypsin, which causes neutrophils to secrete an enzyme called elastase that can break down elastin and other alveolar structures. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Breathing difficulties, a persistent cough with thick sputum, a barrel or pigeon chest, a protracted expiratory respiratory cycle, and the use of accessory muscles. • Abnormal PFTs, sputum examination, CXR, and ABG. • Finger clubbing, muffled breath sounds, orthopnea, and dyspnea upon exercise. Complications • lung failure, cor pulmonale, and repeated lung infections. • Confusion and hypoxia. medical attention and surgical procedure • Antibiotics, bronchodilators, expectorants, mucolytics, extra oxygen, cortisone, etc. • Surgery to reduce lung capacity. • Limiting one's degree of activity. • Teach respiration with pursed lips. O2 might be necessary at home. • Vaccinate against asthma and influenza. • Advocate for regular, small, nutrient-dense meals. greater liquids intake. • Keep an eye on I&O and calorie intake; frequently provide short, high-calorie meals with lots of protein. • Measure O2 saturation, ABG, and breathing pattern; customers may enjoy having a fan blow on them. • Keep in mind that hypoxic respiratory drive requires low O2 levels. What is Pathology – Asthma
Pathophysiology • Reactive inflammatory disease linked to allergen exposure, viral infection, pollution, smoking, or weather extremes. Mast cells, involved in inflammation, produce histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and bradykinin. Chronic inflammation causes fibrosis and narrowing of bronchiole passageways, resulting in air trapping, bronchospasm, and increased dead air space. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Expiratory wheeze, dyspnea, "tight chest," expiratory effort, extended expiratory cycle, diaphoresis, and tachycardia that appear suddenly. • CXR, allergic skin testing, serum IgE, abnormal PFTs, and ABG (acidosis) for eosinophils. Complications include severe respiratory failure and status asthmaticus. medical attention and surgical procedure • Beta2-agonist bronchodilators, leukotriene inhibitors, extra oxygen, corticosteroids, and an intravenous infusion of aminophylline. • Small, frequent meals that are rich in calories and protein. • Limiting one's degree of activity. • The environment should be clear of carpets and drapes, which can harbour allergens. • Give up smoking and keep an emergency inhaler on hand at all times. (beta2-agonist). • Drink more water and keep up a balanced diet. • Use a peak flow metre to keep tabs on asthma. • Keep temperature ranges in check. • Vaccinate against asthma and influenza. • Keep an eye out for signs of respiratory failure, asthmaticus, and situation worsening. • Keep an eye on your respiration patterns, check your lungs every 4 hours, and use a pulse oximeter. Early treatment of exacerbations depends on daily peak flowmeter evaluation. What is Pathology – Bronchiectasis
Pathophysiology • Chronic inflammation causes the bronchi and bronchioles to swell; inflammation causes the smooth muscle in the lungs to lose its elasticity. • Chronic infections develop in dilated regions where mucus is retained and passageways are blocked. • Can be localised or widespread; linked to illnesses that affect children, such as the measles, influenza, or tuberculosis. Evaluation and Diagnostic Results • Rhonchi over bronchi, infected secretions building up in the mucus, recurrent respiratory infections, and decreased breath noises in the lung bases. • ABG, CBC with differential, high-resolution CT image, and oxygen saturation. • Bronchoscopy for palliative care and evaluation. Complications • Anemia brought on by a bad diet (dyspnea). • Pneumonia, atelectasis, and respiratory acidity. • Chronic illness with obstruction. • Bronchial and bronchiole necrosis. medical attention and surgical procedure • Supplemental oxygen, leukotriene inhibitors, bronchodilators, mucolytics, expectorants, and antibiotics. • Postural drooping; restriction of movement. • Bronchoscopy as a form of hospice care. • A lobectomy with segments. • Stress the value of immunisation against influenza and pneumonia. • Smoking must end, and postural drainage must be maintained on an outpatient basis. • Use pulse oximetry to check for oxygen saturation and to check for worsening breathlessness. • Every 4 hours, conduct postural drainage and auscultate the lungs. • Evaluate the mucus and coughing features. • Keep in mind that when mucus accumulates and stagnates, viruses and bacteria have the ideal environment in which to develop and infect people. |
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